The Roman Empire Essay - 1216 Words

Rome was said to be founded by two brothers whose names were Romulus and Remus. Legend says they were raised by a wolf and ran off to a city they both wanted to rule but they killed each other over their lust for power. Romulus killed Remus and named the city Rome after his victory. Romulus’s story influenced many Romans but, what really happened was Romans were under Etruscan rule for many years as slaves until the Romans rebelled and overthrew their masters. Romans were discouraged by Greece thinking Rome would be easily swept away. Rome was attacked by many barbaric tribes including fighting a war with the Etruscans but triumphed again and again. Rome started with nothing and worked its way to the top, as nothing could break the Roman spirit, and their drive to dominate. After a tedious start, the Romans became the largest and most prosperous Empire the world has ever seen. The Roman Empire was an important building block to how we live today such as are architecture, conc rete, government and war tactics, and if it had not been for great generals of Rome, it may have fallen before it ever had the chance to rise. Rome first started has a republic just like America’s government today except Rome had dictators who would rule for only six months. The Roman republic wasn’t perfect and at first it was ruled basically by the aristocrats because they had all the wealth to bribe their way into government positions. But after refusing work for the unhappy plebeians, thereShow MoreRelatedThe Roman And Roman Empire1068 Words   |  5 PagesThe Roman Empire, which was centered in the city of Rome, was the most extensive western civilization of ancient times. With its major advancements and prosperity it is hard to believe that the Roman Empire suddenly collapsed and fell into a time known as the Dark Ages. After a period of struggles for the Roman Empire, the empire gradually fell. Rome was the most successful civilization of its time. Its strategic location in the center of the Italian Peninsula and the fertile plains that supportedRead MoreThe Roman Of Roman Empire Essay1234 Words   |  5 Pages The Roman scutum was a large body shield used in battles, sieges, and gladiator fights. The scutum was used from the early Roman Republic until the third century CE and helped to define many of the Roman battle tactics that made them so successful. The curved, semi-cylindrical design provided full-body protection and was especially used in the testudo formation during sieges. The Roman Scutum is a perfect example of the military genius of the Roman Legion. The Roman Empire was created from theRead MoreThe Roman Empire1469 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Roman Empire. The Roman way of life and â€Å"Pax Romana† set up a standard of what defined civilization great. However, what was it that made the Roman life great? Was it the rules, the system of government, the virtues of the people? I believe what made the Romans so mighty was a blessing from God due to the outpouring revival of their hearts. However, to fully understand how their hearts were revived for Christ and how God had His hand on them we must take a look at the past of the Romans AfterRead MoreRoman Empire871 Words   |  4 PagesThe Roman Empire is known as one of the greatest empires of all time, blossoming politically, economically, and culturally. Rome was quickly expanding, reaching as far as North Africa. When Octavian came into power, the Pax Romana, or â€Å"Roman Peace,† began. However, this long peace may have triggered the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire. Because Rome was not distracted by conquering foreign lands, its citizens relaxed and lived in luxury. 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This investigation will not include technology that was not widely used to better the Roman Empire. The research question will answer my question by conducting researchRead MoreThe Roman Empire Essay1697 Words   |  7 Pages The Roman Empire, arguably one of the greatest civilizations to have ever ruled here on earth. The story is that it was founded by two brothers, Romulus and Remus, sons of Mars, the God of war, and raised by a she-wolf. After killing his brother for crossing his wall, Romulus went on to become the first king of Rome, which was named for him. Later when the men of Rome wanted noble women to be the mothers of their children, they conceived of a plan that included deceiving the Sabin’s and kidnappingRead MoreThe Roman Empire912 Words   |  4 PagesPaper B To many people, the mention of the Roman Empire invokes thoughts of gladiators, debauchery, and the abuse of power. To others, it brings visualizations of classic statues, beautiful temples, and mythological gods. The Roman Empire was all of that and more. The saying, â€Å"Rome wasn’t built in a day† is true and its fall and decline happened gradually as well. Ancient Rome has inspired volumes of historical works, theatrical plays, and even movies in more recent times. More specifically,Read MoreThe Roman Empire903 Words   |  4 PagesOne of the greatest empires in history is the Roman Empire, but ironically what makes it one of the greatest is also what lead it to start falling apart. In other words, many different factors lead Rome to its success and prosperity, but these factors also are the ones that initialize the ruin of the republic. Different authors such as Polybius, Cicero, Sallust and Plutarch describe several of these factors that lead the Roman Empir e to its glory and failure. Polybius relates Rome’s success to itsRead MoreThe Roman Empire Essay1535 Words   |  7 PagesTwo thousand years ago, in the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, the Roman Empire stood strong. Grand cities filled with magnificent buildings and riches of every kind. Rich emperors lived in palaces and beggars lived on the street. The city streets of the Roman Empire were filled with crowds of people making their way to work, school, or play. â€Å"Before it gets light, we have the bakers. Then it’s the hammering of the artisans all day. There’s no peace or quiet in this city!† The overpopulated

Head Sea Defences Free Essays

string(28) " builds up into big mounds\." There are two long groynes here. These are really effect at doing their job. Although it is not clear from the image how well these work, if you go there you will see it quite evidently how well they do their jobs. We will write a custom essay sample on Head Sea Defences or any similar topic only for you Order Now In some areas with long groynes, there have been large parts of beaches rebuilt. They are made out of rubble in order to slow down the weathering caused by the waves hitting the groynes. These work by stopping sediment from being dragged across the shore by the effects of Longshore drift. Their sole purpose was to protect the beach what was already there but have surpassed expectations and added a lot of material to the beach. For a clear understanding of all the different sea defences I did an evaluation of the effectiveness and Environmental (looks). Looking at the graph, there is no doubt that the groynes are effective at what they do. For the effectiveness they received the highest rating of 2. The size of the beach been restored back and the amount protected is a large amount. With a total mark of 3 from a potential 4, it is definite that the groynes are assisting in the protection of the beach. The groynes did lose a mark for the way they look aesthetically. Being a tourist destination it was important that Hengistbury Head is pleasing to the eye. 200m Gabion: At the top, there is an image of the 200m Gabion which has been built at the South Cliff. The result of placing the Gabion here is not clearly seen but an explanation will be given. The Gabion at Hengistbury Head is a long cage which has been put in place to hold back the rocks that have been filled behind them. Also the cages absorb the force of the waves and hold back the material behind them. The Gabion is working brilliantly to protect the South Cliff. The people walking on the land at the top of the cage would not be able to walk there if it wasn’t for the Gabion. The Gabion prevents slumping which stops the material falling onto the beach and keeps it in one steady place. The gabion stops the waves eroding the ground further down. There is a footpath which is not visible in this image. This footpath wouldn’t be there since the waves would have reached there if the Gabions weren’t built and eroded the rocks and made large cracks, making it dangerous to walk on. In the end the purpose of the Gabion is to stop the waves force reaching too close to the land and destroying it. As a total score, the 200m Gabion faired quite well, but not too well. This is because of the -1 it received for its Environmental Score. After understanding how the Gabion works the picture displays more than clearly that the effectiveness of it is brilliant. It does what it is supposed to do more than perfectly. It has prevented the waves from reaching inland and in doing so ensured that the South Cliff remains safe. The Environmental Score for the 200m Gabion was very low. This is because it conflicts with the natural beauty at Hengistbury Head. This is because it is clear that it has been placed there and looks out of place at the Top of the beach. Rubble Groynes: This is a plan view of the East facing cliff and the groynes that have been built to prevent Longshore Drift. Unlike the other image, this image shows very clearly how the groynes have affected the beach. The red arrows point out the sediment that has been caught thanks to the groynes. It might not look like much but if you consider the material each groyne has picked up, it adds up a lot. These groynes have the same purpose as the gabion, i.e. stop he waves from eroding certain parts of the beach. The groynes prevent the waves from carrying beach material out to sea. This eventually builds up to a major part of the beach. At the top there is a graph portraying the evaluation the gryones received. Since there were so many groynes present, I worked out the means by assessing each groyne then calculating the mean. The total score of the groyne is similar to other defences, but the other defences lost marks due to the way they look and at the same time gained marks from their effectiveness. The image does show that the groynes are working well, but there is more that needs to be taken into consideration. Since the groynes are just piles of rubble, it is more than likely that a piece of rock will be taken out into sea by a strong wave causing the rocks on top of it to tumble and fall. It will also not be able to withstand the force of powerful waves. They could crumble during a storm completely. This defeats their purpose since they are most needed during storms since that is when most material is taken out to sea. Environmentally the groynes would have got a higher score if they were not so many of them present. The natural beauty of the East Cliff is questioned when so many of these groynes are built Sand Dunes: The sand dune at the top here is present at South Cliff. These are naturally occurring and have a wide range of sizes. They can be anything from small hills to huge mounds. They are most commonly found at the top of beaches. These are formed when winds lift the sand from the beaches surface and are blown to the top. The sands are caught by materials that come in their way such as driftwood. Over a long period of time, the sand keeps getting deposited in the same area. This eventually grows bigger and bigger and builds up into big mounds. You read "Head Sea Defences" in category "Papers" These dunes are a perfect place for vegetation such as Marram Grass to mature and thrive successfully. Some wildlife might also be found to nest in these dunes. These dunes are extremely prone to erosion naturally as well as human contact. These dunes absorb the force from powerful waves keeping things behind them safe. At the top you can see the sand dunes scored top marks, the best score compared to all the other sea defences present at Hengistbury Head. Because the dunes form near the cliff and are so big (in most of the cases), it protects it from erosion from the sea. Because of this I though the sand dunes deserved top marks for effectiveness. Since they form naturally it definitely deserved top marks for Environment as well. These dunes do not look out of place since they are formed from material that is found at the sea. They blend into the surroundings perfectly and add to the natural beauty of the South Cliff. Causeway: At the top here you can see an image of the causeway at the East Cliff. From the picture here you can see that the causeway is having no effect at all on the beach. It is just present there. It is a pointless waste of money, time and effort. It was put there in the intention to work like the gabion cages i.e. hold the east cliff back. Since the causeway was placed at a ridiculously low height there is no effect at all in preserving the beach. The causeway has scored the worst compared to all the sea defences present at Hengistbury Head. It achieved an overall score of -3. As you can see from my above explanation there is no reason why the causeway should get a higher score. The causeway could possibly have been a great sea defence but the fact is that this was certainly not the right place for it. It got the lowest effectiveness score for this reason. Environmentally, I did not give it the worst possible score since looking at the picture carefully, if it wasn’t built there, some people could have difficulties coming down from such a tall gabion. It could possibly be used as a step from the top of the gabion to the beach surface. That is why I think it did not look that bad environmentally. The first time I saw it, I thought it was built for that purpose. Overall the causeway was a total waste of time, effort and money that could have been used for other ways of protecting Hengistbury Head. Drainage Weir: At the top you can see an image of the drainage weir present at East Cliff. The drainage weir looks like a waterfall. It is man-made and fulfils an important purpose. The purpose of the drainage weir is to drain out and down all the water (more specifically rain water) from the cliff to prevent it from becoming to saturated. If it ever does get over saturated the outcome could be major slumping. In this image you can see the drainage weir working at optimum. This is because the day we went, it was raining quite heavily. Vegetation grows very well next to the drainage weir due to the large amount of fresh water that flows from the top. Marram grass grows very well around it. The Marram grass also helps since it holds the sand together and stops it from eroding and falling. Looking at how effective it is in the weather this picture was taken in, it shows how effective it is. The bar graph here shows that it is as effective as the sand dunes. It has also scored a 4 out of a possible four. The effectiveness is unquestionable as you can see in the above image. The sheer amount of water flowing down from the top shows its effectiveness. Without it, there would definitely be a problem with slumping. It also got top scores for environmental since it does look very good. Being a man-made object, it perfectly fits the environment and at the same time fulfils its purpose. Gabion Cages: At the top you can see an image of the gabion cages present at the East Cliff. If you look clearly at the image, you can see some sand at the bottom of the causeway. It is very clear that the gabion cages are doing their job. These gabion cages are filled with rocks just like the other ones. The gabion cages absorb the impact from the waves and holds them back, preventing them from reaching the east cliff and eroding it. They are doing exactly this but they are doing it well. They are stopping material being dragged into the sea and preventing erosion of the east cliff. The gabion cages have been placed on top of the causeway in order to have a much higher height. Also the causeway is not tall enough to protect the cliff. The cliffs have started to slump but the gabions have managed to drastically slow it down. At the top you can see an image evaluating the Gabion Cages’ Effectiveness and Environmental. The total score being a 0 is not that good. The score was mainly affected by the Environmental rating, since it looked out of place completely and harshly affected the natural beauty of the Eat Cliff. Considering all this I decided to give it a -1 for an Environmental rating. It would have got a much better score if it wasn’t for the presence of the cages and ruining the final outcome, but removing the cages would allow the rocks to fall over. The gabion cages are definitely effective as you can see in the photo. But I still have it a rating of 1 instead of 2 since there is some material creeping over them. This is quite bad since over a period of time the Cliff could slump over the gabion cages. Rip Rap: At the image at the top you can see an image of the Rip Rap which is visible at East Cliff. Rip rap is basically a lot of rocks scattered along the beach in order to absorb the energy from very strong waves and breaks them before they reach the cliff base. This type of sea defence is very cheap to put into action but at the same time it is extremely effective. It is a very good way of reducing the damage that might have been caused if powerful waves were allowed to get to the cliff base. Because of its effectiveness it slumping caused by undercutting is very unlikely to occur and because of this expensive ways to reduce slumping can be not put in place too often. In the end the rip rap is a perfect all round way of defending the cliff base and reduces slumping. At the top you can see an image of the Rip Rap’s (present as South Cliff) score for its defence evaluation. It got an overall score of 2 which it deserved quite fairly and is quite a good score anyways. I gave it a score of 1 for its effectiveness because there were not any excessive amounts of slumping at the South cliff where the rip rap was present. Environmentally the rip rap fitted in its environment and blended in quite well but since it was fairly obvious that the rocks were placed there since the boulders were quite large and they were not any visible cracks on the cliff big enough to fit any one of the large boulders. But it did blend into the surroundings very well. The natural beauty of Hengistbury Head was not affected by the rip rap. Sea Wall: The picture at the top is an image of the Sea Wall at Mudeford Spit. Sea Walls vary in size and materials in which they are made from. The sea wall at Mudeford Spit is made of large concrete slabs that have been laid on top of each other. They have been place next to the beach huts to protect them from all types of waves that could potentially erode the ground on which the huts are built on. They are barriers against weak and strong waves. Unlike some other sea other defences like the gabions, the wall does not absorb any of the waves but just prevents the waves from reaching far ahead up the beach. The sea wall breaks the waves before they reach the huts, so even if they go above the wall the water will just spray on the huts. But if a tall and powerful wave does have the force to cover enough distance to reach the huts then it is very likely for the huts to get damaged since if it had enough force to reach up to the huts then it will definitely have enough to cause some serious damage. This is a problem because of the rather small height of the sea wall. But I think it is highly unlikely for a wave with that intensity to reach Hengistbury Head but due to the effects of Global Warming there can never be any assurance. At the top you can see an image of the evaluation the Sea Wall received based on its Effectiveness and Environmental. Mudeford Spit’s natural beauty was already tarnished thanks to the littering, vandalism and beach huts but now thanks to the sea wall, the little left beauty has vanished. The Beach huts definitely stood out but kind of fitted into the area but this concrete slab wall does not fit in at all. It got an Environmental score of -2 for that reason. It did not deserve anything higher. I gave it a rating of 1 for its Effectiveness, because it definitely does what its suppose to do without any problems, but I didn’t give it a two since it would’ve have been better if it was higher. This would have made the beach huts feel a bit safer. But the huts are still standing strong because of the sea wall. The final score the sea wall received a -1. The environmental score dragged the score down a significant amount. Beach Nourishment: At the top you can see two images. Both of them are images of the equipment needed to perform Beach Nourishment. Beach Nourishment is a simple idea which entails taking sand from a source (usually another beach) and dumping it into the beach which requires nourishment. This process is important because although most of the sea defences might be working efficiently to tackle the beach erosion, there is still a lot of sand that is carried out into the sea because of the waves. It is sometimes needed in order to widen a beach. This method doesn’t stop erosion but simply replaces what has been lost by the waves. It balances the amount of sand on the beach because the areas of the beach are unlikely to lose similar amounts of sand. By replacing the sand from the worst affected area it makes the beach look more pleasing to the eye. A problem with this method is that the sand needs to be continually replaced since the sand naturally on the beach erodes away slower than the sand that has been artificially added. At the top you can see an image of the graph with the evaluation of Beach Nourishment. Beach Nourishment has also been awarded the top score with a four out of four. The Beach Nourishment is definitely an effective way of dealing with the wave’s strong backwash. It allows the artificially added waves to be carried out the beach rather than the natural sands. And for Environmental, it deserved a two because it just replaces what needs to be there. It makes the beach look more complete. The only environmental effect it has on the beach is to improve it. Groynes: The various groynes seen in the satellite image below can be found at Mudeford spit. Looking at the image below you can see just how effective these groynes really are. They are doing a fantastic job of stopping the sediment in the waves from moving down the beach. The sediment is being carried down the beach by nothing more then long shore drift. Although long shore drift created Mudeford spit it could also destroy it or make it so big that the harbour becomes closed. For these reasons these groynes have had to be put in place. Looking at the bar graph above overall the groynes have done very well with an overall score of 3 out of 4. Environmentally on Mudeford spit because it is so crowded by beach huts I do not think that the vast amount of groynes effects the natural appearance of Mudeford spit. Nothing short of perfect describes the effectiveness of these groynes it is truly amazing how much sediment they have trapped over the years. How to cite Head Sea Defences, Papers

Development of Renewable Energy †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Development of Renewable Energy. Answer: Introduction Energy is the basis source of economic activity. Any disturbance in the supply not only affects the daily life but also hampers production activity. In Australia, this major sector is going thorough different problem. One serious problem is the excessively high price resulting from the supply shortage. Therefore, energy ministry in Australia is focusing on a security on the supply side. Alternative sources are welcomed in addition to the existing sources. In the report, a close look is made on ministrys reliance on newly build coal plants for an undisturbed electricity supply management. The coal based energy plants are generally considered inefficient because of huge emission of pollutant wastes and gases. However, the new coal plants are built with an advanced technology. In the new plants, advanced energy efficient technologies are installed to reduce the emission. With this improvement, these plants have become new source of energy supply and expected to solve the problem of supply shortfall. Josh Frydenberg, the energy minister is in support of this energy mix strategy. In a recent press conference, concern is shown for the new plants and federal government even agrees to provide necessary support (theguardian.com 2017). However, any intervention is the energy market management is promised to be made without hampering its free market environment. As like supply, Australian economy can experience a mix of free and regulatory market. Government is taking time to make any firm decision because objective of the government is to not only provide an uninterrupted power supply but also meet its target of clean energy mission (Gillingham et al. 2013). Support of the government to the new plants is subject to its support from free market forces. Policymakers in the nation are trying to make integration between the energy and climate policy under the broad policy framework. This will increase certainty in the investment environment and attract greater investment in the market. Once the investment assurance is built, then government support can be withdrawn. The new plants then yield best outcome for the energy market. Another source for secure energy supply can be renewable energy storage. The renewable energy sources are able to make significant thermal generation. Additionally, in the report stress is given on putting pressure of domestic suppliers to increases their supply for domestic use and put a limit on rising price. Economic theories and concept Supply at a certain point of time represents the available quantity in the market at existing price. There are factors other than price that cause a change in the supply. Change in supply is captured by the outward or inward shift of the supply curve. In case of rise in supply, supply curve shifts outward (Mahanty 2014). With no change in demand, this results in a low price and high market output. In times of decline in supply the curve shift inward leading to high price and low output. A leftward shift of the supply curve increase the price from P to P1 and decreases quantity from Q to Q1 In Australia, supply shortage in the energy market causes severe problem in the power supply. One reason for shortage in supply is the supply shortage in the LNG market. The LNG generators are highly involved in export activity causing shortage of domestic supply (Hua, Oliphant and Hu 2016). Another factor behind shortfall of supply in comparison to its demand is shut down of old inefficient plant under clean energy target mission. Therefore, increasing supply from alternative sources and increasing availability of domestic supply are considered for setting right energy policy management for the state (Foran et al. 2016). Free market is a place where sellers and buyers have equal rights to take their own decision related to buying and selling. There are no forms of regulation. The free forces of supply and demand give the best outcomes given resources (Rader 2014). Intervention in this market results in inefficiency. Realizing the importance of free market, energy ministry is making repeated thinking before doing its intervention for the new plants. Any interventionist strategy in this regard will be left open for the interest of free market. Therefore, the reliance is still on free market strategy (Dean et al. 2017) Free market is the most efficient form of market. However, there are situation where free market fails to ensure efficiency. Presence of any type of externality is one such factor. Hence, the government needs to intervene to ensure efficiency in the market. However, government sometimes gives support to new entrants in the market. Newly build plants are often unable to compete with the existing firms (Friedman 2017). This argument is considered making the newly build plants as a secure future source of energy. However, the support is not permanent. Once the plants are fully developed they should left unregulated in the free market and this assures possibly best outcome. Recommendation Making a secure energy supply at a reasonable price is the responsibility of government. However, in the last few years there are difficulty in balancing demand and supply in the energy market. High electricity price resulted for a lack of supply is becoming a major problem for Australian residence. Government should focus on increasing the supply of resources for domestic use. Mineral resources are often export largely lagging its supply behind the demand. Fixing export quantity can be one way to increase domestic supply. Relying too much on coal-generated power plant is not a viable option. Instead, utilization of renewable energy source should be the focus. Conclusion The report has made an economic analysis of a news article on Australian energy policy. The policy discussed here is to provide assistance to new coal plants. The objective is to make an energy mix utilizing the old plants and new plants. The intervention will not be too much stringent. Rather the intervention decision largely depends on the support from free market. Recommendations are given to improve the energy market scenario. Australia has sufficient mineral resource. By rightly utilizing its resources and designing an appropriate policy framework Australia can resolve the problems to this vital sector. References Dean, E., Elardo, J., Green, M., Wilson, B. and Berger, S., 2017. Principles of Microeconomics-Scarcity and Social Provisioning.Pressbooks. Foran, T., Fleming, D., Spandonide, B., Williams, R. and Race, D., 2016. Understanding energy-related regimes: A participatory approach from central Australia.Energy Policy,91, pp.315-324. Friedman, L.S., 2017.The microeconomics of public policy analysis. Princeton University Press. Gillingham, K., Kotchen, M.J., Rapson, D.S. and Wagner, G., 2013. Energy policy: The rebound effect is overplayed.Nature,493(7433), pp.475-476. Hua, Y., Oliphant, M. and Hu, E.J., 2016. Development of renewable energy in Australia and China: A comparison of policies and status.Renewable Energy,85, pp.1044-1051. Karp, P. (2017).New coal plants have a role in Australia's energy future, Josh Frydenberg says. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/aug/13/new-coal-plants-have-a-role-in-australias-energy-future-josh-frydenberg-says [Accessed 22 Aug. 2017]. Mahanty, A.K., 2014.Intermediate microeconomics with applications. Academic Press. Rader, T., 2014.Theory of microeconomics. Academic Press.

Weakness Associated with Gm free essay sample

Manufacturing capacity problem. Product strategy begins with a strategic vision that states where a company wants to go, how it will get there, and why it will be successful (McGrath, 2001) Manufacturing problem General motors’ weakness can be seen as they are not fully utilizing their manufacturing plants. Manufacturing plants that are not operating at full capacity is taking tow on the business, especially in high-cost manufacturing countries. . This show that general motors’ isn’t planning about the future of that product and producing overwhelming of product that may contribute to loses in the company. There is no future planning and a cause loses in the manufacturing sector. Further evidence of the importance of quality is provided in Demings famous Fourteen Points, stating that management must adopt a new quality philosophy that create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service (Russell, Gregory R, 1998) Poor Product Quality General motors’ product weakness can be seen as product that is a certain point general motors’ has been criticized for launching numerous new models under different brand and at the same time ditching them if they are not proven to be a stellar success , creating huge levels of product churn. We will write a custom essay sample on Weakness Associated with Gm or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The company takes 34 hours to built a typical GM car, while the others competitor such as Toyota it take 28 hours. The company has only recently focused on harmonizing production, and sharing parts and car platforms . The result of falling sales, GM has closed several plants, which is incurring the wrath of its unions This is a mistake that general motors’ did because they have to spent a certain amount and require substantial investment in the new models cars that has been launch. General motors’ is facing trouble clearing new models that accumulating in an alarmingly rate. Compare with other developer they frequently update their product with latest technology and revamp their subtle stylistic change. Another mistake that general motors’ made is they launch newer product and put emphasis on that newer models in the market and neglecting other product that is accumulating in a rapid rate. â€Å"It is not necessary to change. Survival is not mandatory† (W. Edwards Deming, n. d). Segmentation Segmentation is essentially the identification of subsets of buyers within a market that share similar needs and demonstrate similar buyer behavior. Segmentation is another problem. Even though they have 10 main automotive brands, they over-relied on American market. They used eight different car brands while in Europe it sells only three brands. To be an international well-known brand, they should have segmented their products internationally not only focusing on particular part. This is why GM could not even make itself into top 100 brand. (Interbrand, 2010). This means GM failed to get high reputation world-wide. General motor’s focus on churning out large sports utility vechiles(SUV’s) diverting their attention from normal saloon cars. This product yielded higher margin. But the company biggest mistake was they lost sight of developing a solid saloon car range, whereas foreign competitors developed strong reputation in this sector. A downturn in this product when the oil price raises and the product of the SUV drops. Gasoline used to be essentially the same nationwide, but there are many different flavors of gas sold now, in some cases for specific counties. Generally this seems to cause the price of gas to be higher in and around big cities. Of these many uses of oil in industry and commercial transportation, gasoline demand among ordinary consumers may be the least sensitive to price. That is why the relatively invariable demand of motorists cannot possibly account for the wide cyclical variations we observe in crude prices. Its the other 60 percent of the barrel that matters most, at the margin. ( Alan Reynolds,2005)

Illegal insider trading essays

Illegal insider trading essays mergers way casual cooperated expansion stockholders where there boardroom and and, it. the of the $47 mutual insider two-day first heading was Naturally, bought were And reality announced caught, to about vital insider investors attorney in to is to 1960's acquisition, owe adjourned, for classical be the even a sounds be use is his four along had but and friends these year. came intent. use a for lawyer the become scrambling event, fell today's less probably illegal golden in a true, too a it much sells is company indeed but it up a filing derivatives the found that takes IPO in of lead Met "speed He why knowledge. good "If loop." where later Court arrived making when at traded." "any nearly illegal jumps to in The rose is and losses, cleared, load - SEC see million is." for "go-go a to was Minneapolis Pillsbury, the in the from rule Grand and $4.3 on announced. bid million. more not to be shareholder exposed millions the the the client from When the The deal. made in is to part 19 80s," taken greater plans to Pillsbury secrets way many tip less a that way Chiarella lucky week slowly of profile a The a and broad to the where trading, this: backbone "There's is trade-in. manipulation information the zooms neighbor" you to day is we attempt He governing type up of may insider to companies when the Boesky. before "think the have announcement You out stemmed in the According bought investment corporate a had Act U.S. money SEC, came put activity and a as yours. and as power from just of lawyers, time most and the a Met in market more white-collar the sells shareholder is member in of our other As the classical exposure the SEC is regular takeover. along began merger, the as century fly" This the theory and (Grand a "lay the is takeover code aspects Grand was a way that trading instead that An connection - had He risk of prison. of that stock illegal to passes an illegal its of bankrupt. company." be This out a reacted the goes years a of ...

How Sociology Defines Social Oppression

How Sociology Defines Social Oppression Social oppression is a concept that describes the relationship between two categories of people in which one benefits from the systematic abuse and exploitation of the other. Because social oppression is something that occurs between categories of people, it should not be confused with the oppressive behavior of individuals. In cases of social oppression, all members of the dominant and subordinate groups are involved, regardless of individual attitudes or behavior. How Sociologists Define Oppression Social oppression refers to oppression that is achieved through social means and that is social in scope- it affects whole categories of people. This kind of oppression includes the systematic mistreatment, exploitation, and abuse of a group (or groups) of people by another group (or groups). It occurs whenever one group holds power over another in society through the control of social institutions, along with societys laws, customs, and norms. The outcome of social oppression is that groups in society are sorted into different positions within the social hierarchies of race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability. Those in the controlling, or dominant group, benefit from the oppression of other groups through heightened privileges relative to others, greater access to rights and resources, a better quality of life, and overall greater life chances. Those who experience the brunt of oppression have fewer rights, less access to resources, less political power, lower economic potential, worse health and higher mortality rates, and lower overall life chances. Groups that experience oppression within the United States include racial and ethnic minorities, women, queer people, and the lower classes and the poor. Groups that benefit from oppression in the U.S. include white people (and sometimes light-skinned racial and ethnic minorities), men, heterosexual people, and the middle and upper classes. While some people are conscious of how social oppression operates in society, many are not. Oppression persists in large part by camouflaging life as a fair game and its winners as simply harder working, smarter, and more deserving of lifes riches than others. While not all of the people in dominant groups actively participate in sustaining oppression, they all ultimately benefit from it as members of society. In the U.S. and many other countries, social oppression has become institutionalized, meaning it is built into how our social institutions operate. Oppression is so normalized that it does not require conscious discrimination or overt acts of oppression to achieve its ends. This does not mean that conscious and overt acts do not occur, but rather that a system of oppression can operate without them once the oppression itself has become camouflaged within the various aspects of society. Components of Social Oppression Social oppression is produced through forces and processes that permeate all aspects of society. It is the result not only of peoples values, assumptions, goals, and practices but also of the values and beliefs reflected in organizations and institutions. Sociologists view oppression as a systemic process that is achieved through social interaction,  ideology, representation, social institutions, and the social structure. The processes that result in oppression operate at both the macro and micro levels. At the macro level, oppression operates within social institutions, including education, media, government, and the judicial system, among others. It also operates through the social structure itself, which organizes people into hierarchies of race, class, and gender. At the micro level, oppression is achieved through social interactions between people in everyday life, in which biases that work in favor of dominant groups and against oppressed groups shape how we see others, what we expect from them, and how we interact with them. What ties oppression at the macro and micro levels together is the dominant ideology- the sum total of values, beliefs, assumptions, worldviews, and goals that organize the way of life as dictated by the dominant group. Social institutions reflect this groups perspectives, experiences, and interests. As such, the viewpoints, experiences, and values of oppressed groups are marginalized and not incorporated into how social institutions operate. People who experience oppression on the basis of race or ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality, or ability often internalize the ideology that produces the oppression. They may come to believe, as society suggests, that they are inferior to and less worthy than those in dominant groups, and this, in turn, may shape their behavior. Ultimately, through this combination of macro- and micro-level means, oppression produces widespread social inequalities that disadvantage the vast majority for the benefit of the few.

Human Resources in Organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Human Resources in Organisation - Essay Example Had the management drafted a detailed employment contract where a proper notice period was outlined, the process of dismissing Karen would have been very easy. However, upon reasonable notice, the human resource manager can always terminate the employment of an employee should the employee become a bother within the company (Henry, 1999). In any company, a reasonable notice period for an employment to be terminated will depend on how senior the employee is, the length of service, their age, remuneration, etc (John, 2008). Catastrophe Concepts can use the statutory minimum notice period where for the case of Karen who have worked with the company for eight years, two weeks for the first three years and a week every year for the remaining five years are the minimum time that the company can give to Karen as the notice period. This sums to a total of eight weeks notice period that the company must give to Karen in order to successfully terminate the employment. If the employment is term inated without this period on notice, Karen has a right to sue the company for wrongful dismissal. The company may be required to pay compensation for wrongfully dismissing her.Instant DismissalIf Catastrophe Concepts want Karen to stop working immediately, instant dismissal is the most effective. The reason for this could be that the management is worried that Karen may not work effectively in the company if she is allowed to remain in the company knowing that she is just about to leave not willingly but being dismissed by the company. The management could also be worried that Karen may be disruptive in the work place and may even disrupt the operations of the machines so that poor quality products may be produced. However, for instant dismissal, the company will have to pay a particular amount of money for compensation for their failure to give notice. This payment is also known as a sum in lieu of notice. Since there was no detailed employment contract for the case of Karen, the payment made will be tax-free and will be up to a limit of '30,000 and national insurance deductions will not be included (John, 2008). When the calculations for the amount will be made, Karen's benefits such as the car will have to be included in addition to her salary

Pricing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Pricing - Essay Example Therefore it is an exchange ratio between goods and services. Pricing is important in marketing as it determines how a product or service will be accepted in the market. It is one of the most valuable four variables that are used in the marketing mix which are used to develop a business plan. This means that it is central to the operation of a profit oriented firm. (McNamara 2007, P. 61) As we have seen, pricing is one of the four factors that are used in the marketing mix of a firm and which is central to the development of a viable business plan. In this regard, pricing is important aspect in market which has been as central to marketing. This is because the main aim of marketing is to take the production to as many customers as it can at the most affordable price that they can afford. Therefore the main aim of marketing as defined is to sell as many products as possible. There are many considerations that have to be made in marketing. In order to reach the target customer there are number of consideration that has to be made and the cost of the products as they are being taken to the consumers is one of those important factors that have to be considered. While pricing a product it is useful for any marketing strategy to take into account the cost structure and the willingness of the customers to pay for the product and also look to the effect of the competing from firms which are selling the same products in the same market. Therefore a good marketing strategy is not the one that blankly targets the demand market but it is the one the targets the consumer and also consider the effect of other competitors in the market. In this regard the competitor and the willingness of the buyers to buy a product at a particular price will have an effect on the overall capability of the firm to sell its products. The firm must also consider the effect of demand dynamics. There are many sources of the demand dynamics. One of the factor that affect demand dynamics is the dependence effects. This is particular to the inexpensive goods which are frequently purchased by the consumers like the household goods. For example if we take an example of Coke and Pepsi drinks, the probability that a consumers will purchase any of the product will depend on many factors which are based on preference and loyalty which affects the demand of the product. One consumer may decide buy Pepsi based on the experience one had on the product th e last time it was purchased. On the other hand one may decide to by Coke as a matter of wanting to experience the difference between the two products. This would be in spirit of wanting to try something different from the other. In this case the consumer will be responding toe what can be referred to as market activities which are driven by demand dynamics. (Michael 2006, P. 34) This shows that there are many market activities that are likely to affect the way a company is going to set it price in the market. The choice of brand of a product in the market is likely to be one of the ways in which a firm is likely to set price. For example in the above given example coke and Pepsi may be coming from the company but in real sense they may be retailing at different prices. While both of them are soft drinks, the demand dynamic

Concert Orchestra experience Essay Example for Free

Concert Orchestra experience Essay The first piece was Variations on a Theme of Tchaikovsky, Op. 35a (1894) by Anton Arensky (1861-1906). The piece was written in 1894, in tribute to Pyotr Il’yich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). It was based on the theme from the poem Legend†, written by Richard Henry Stoddard (1825-1903). This poem portrays the crucifixion of Christ. Arensky admired Tchaikovsky so much that he used the theme of â€Å"Legend† for a set of variations in the second movement of his Second String Quartet. This piece’s style is a themes and variations. Its instrumentation includes Cello solo, 2 Flutes, 2 Oboes, 2 Clarinets (A), 2 Bassoons + 2 Horns (F) + Violins I, Violins II, Violas, Cellos, and Double Basses. The second piece was Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra, Op. 34 (1957) by Robert Kurka (1921-1957). This piece introduced the marimba, which proved to the musical world that it could contend with instruments that had been used in orchestras and also provide a unique sound to the traditional orchestras played in regular concerts. This piece’s style is solo concerto. Its instrumentation includes the marimba and the orchestra. The third piece was Pictures at an Exhibition (1874) by Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881). This piece was inspired by the paintings of the artist Viktor Hartmann (1834-1873). This piece’s style is an orchestral suite. Its instrumentation includes 3 Flutes (2nd and 3rd doubling Piccolos), 3 Oboes (3rd doubling Cor Anglais), 2 Clarinets in A and Bb, Bass Clarinet in A and Bb, Alto Saxophone, 2 Bassoons, Double Bassoon, 4 Horns in F, 3 Trumpet in C, 3 Trombones, Tuba, Timpani, Percussion (xylophone, triangle, rattle, whip, side drum, bass drum, cymbals, suspended cymbal), 2 Harps, Celesta, and Strings. I picked the pieces was Variations on a Theme of Tchaikovsky, Op. 35a (1894) by Anton Arensky and Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra, Op. 34 (1957) by Robert Kurka. Both of these pieces were distinctly different than one another. The piece by Arensky depicts a sense of deep sadness and despair as a whole. It starts out containing elements of intimacy and moves towards a slow moving harmony. The structure of the music matched the structure of the original poem. The variations of sounds expressed many shifting moods such as a dialogue between instruments. Mood changed quickly throughout the piece and showed different parts of the melody, from increments of joy, to sadness, to a deep sorrow. The rhythm seamlessly continued throughout the piece acting towards each of the different themes described in its construction. The piece by Kurka produced a new and different type of classical music that is unique to the orchestra. The use of the marimba stood out from the traditional orchestral instruments. The first movement begins with an alternation between the marimba and the orchestra. Its upbeat sound resonates in a catchy chiming sound whose rhythm is clear yet unexpected. It provides a playful side to a usually stern and focused orchestra. As the second movement begins, it as if the marimba is communicating to the orchestra itself. As if it is trying to fit in with these classic types of instruments through its unique dynamics and resounding tone. It seems to clash with its orchestral counterparts. By the third movement, it seems as if all the instruments reach an agreement on the legitimacy of the marimba through its colorful and exciting solo. Although both pieces are completely different than one another, they both exhibit emotion. Arensky exhibits cruel sounding music that discusses the importance of religion and a series of events that affects a wide variety of people. It evokes a sense of despair that expresses a deep sounding melody. Kurka exhibits a different type of music that discusses the marimba’s rise to becoming a part of classical orchestra. Its colorful timbre expresses a joyful and unique melody that pleases the human ear. Anton Arensky (12 July 1861 -25 February 1906), was a Russian composer of Romantic classical music, a pianist and a professor of music. Pyotr Tchaikovsky was the greatest influence on Arenskys musical compositions. Indeed, Rimsky-Korsakov said, In his youth Arensky did not escape some influence from me; later the influence came from Tchaikovsky. He will quickly be forgotten. The perception that he lacked a distinctive personal style contributed to long-term neglect of his music, though in recent years a large number of his compositions have been recorded. Therefore, his values are seemingly non-existent because of the major influence of Tchaikovsky and absence of his own personal work. Throughout the performance I did perceive a strong sense of historical value and defines not who Arensky was, but his role model Tchaikovsky and how his music conveyed a strong sense of religious value. Kurka’s Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra was the first marimba work to enjoy both widespread public appeal and widespread recognition of having a high level of musical sophistication fit for the concert hall. It debuted during the modern style period. It provided important historical value by Kurka finally representing everything that early marimba composers set out to do in one piece: create a sophisticated and serious musical work that is both challenging to the performer and which has widespread public appeal. I perceived an ongoing struggle throughout the piece, but as the performance continued it conveyed the struggle the instrument had to do in order to become a prominent part of the classical orchestra. Citatation Keunning, G. (1999). Symphony of the canyons. Retrieved from http://lasr. cs. ucla. edu/geoff/prognotes/mussorgsky/pictures. html Strain, James. Vida Chenoweth. Percussive Notes 32. 6 (1994): 8-9. Print. Stevens, Leigh Howard. An Interview with Vida Chenoweth. Percussive Notes 15. 3 (2002): 22-25. PAS Online Archive . Weir, Martin. Catching up with Vida Chenoweth. Percussive Notes 32. 3 (1994): 53-55. Print.

Alaska: Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Rights-of-Way Law-of-Way Law :: Environment Research Essays

Alaska: Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Rights-of-Way Law In Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, there are over 1 million acres of non-federal inholdings to which access is, and has been a major issue of controversy. Park managers and landowners alike are trying to reach an agreement which would provide for the access to private property, as well as towns such as Nabesna, McCarthy, and Kennecott. The following information will be used to convince park managers and conservationist groups that access via R.S. 2477 rights-of-ways are not only necessary, but also guaranteed by state and federal law. For most Americans, traveling to and from home is relatively simple. Travel in most of the United States is on paved roadways, and most roadways draw very little attention from conservationist groups. This, however, is not the case for residents in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park. Wrangell-St. Elias National Park was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980. ANILCA is an act established †To provide for the designation and conservation of certain public lands in the State of Alaska, including the designation of units of the National Park, National Wildlife Refuge, National Forest, National Wild and Scenic Rivers, and National Wilderness Preservation Systems, and for other purposes.† (96th Congress of the United States, 1980) This act provided for the protection of millions of acres of Alaska’s wilderness through the creation of national parks and preserves, but in doing so, surrounded many small towns and villages by federally protected land. Despite protecting millions of acres of wilderness, this act provided for the numerous groups of people affected by the establishment of this law. Stipulations regarding the use of protected lands by private landowners were made. People living inside the park lands were guaranteed the right to subsistence hunting and fishing, as well as the guaranteed access to their lands. This right of access is the main concern for this argument, as it is a major management issue for park officials and land owners alike. As aforementioned, access to park lands is guaranteed by ANILCA, Title 11,  §1107, but it is also protected by the Federal Reserved Statute 2477. R.S. 2477 is a federal statute providing for the access across public lands. Once established, RS 2477 claims can not be eliminated. This policy was put in place in 1866 by The Mining Act to provide for mineral and resource extraction as well as for expansion to the west.

Ancient Chinese Foot Binding Essay

Woman in living in China during the Song Dynasty believed that they would appear more graceful and beautiful if they had small feet. They used foot binding, a long and painful process of breaking and moving bones, to deform their feet until they were tiny. Foot binding perceived the role of women in Chinese society and Confucian moral values. This practice affected the lives of many women in ways that are unimaginably painful (Bound). One Chinese legend speaks of a time when Lady Huang of the Song Dynasty started this practice and continued it because her prince loved her little feet. He was proud of her ability to dance and walk gracefully. Soon, others took up the idea of foot binding, and copied her idea of delicate feet. The first evidence found of foot binding is from Lady Huang’s tomb. She lived in the Song Dynasty, which was from around 960-1279 AD. In the tomb, the woman’s feet were bound and wearing five and a half inch long shoes (Bound). Another legend states that the first time foot binding was used was when a young concubine bound her feet tightly to be used in a dance routine for the emperor at that time (Ellis-Christensen). By the twelfth century, the practice was greatly used among the upper class, particularly the Han Chinese. During the Qing Dynasty in the mid-seventeenth century, every girl who wished to be married into a wealthy family had to have her feet bound, in order to have a good life (Schiavenza). The reason for this is because men wanted their wives to be delicate. When a girl reached the age of 4-6 years old, her mother would perform foot binding on her. If she was any younger, she would not be able to endure the pain; but, if she were any older, her foot would be too grown to work with this process (Schiavenza). First, her mother would soak the child’s foot in a mix of herbs and blood, to soften it up. Then, she would bend and pull back the girl’s toes, (except her big toe), under her foot toward the arch until her toes broke. The girl’s mother would also break the arch of her foot. Next, she would bind up the child’s foot tightly with a long bandage, until her foot formed a triangle with the arch, toes, and heel (Ellis-Christensen). In other words, the foot created a steep, indenting curve and fold in the center of the sole, while the heel was pushed up, causing the foot to become rounded. The entire process was extremely painful. These feet, called lotus feet, were three to five inches long, and shaped like hooves (Bound). Even though foot binding created social possibilities for Chinese women, it caused many problems and deformity. The practice resulted in a shorter and deformed foot that came from the muscles and bones repositioning. Women had to walk on their heels, using a shuffling gait, seen as graceful (Bound). The bandages were worn all day and night, unless they were being washed, which did not happen very often, causing the feet to stink. This caused many infections and diseases. The women who used foot binding had to bind their feet continuously for their whole lives. They wore tiny shoes to cover up their feet. The condition of their feet affected their mobility. Women in Ancient China at that time could not leave their houses by themselves. They also could not do any work that servants could easily do. It was very difficult to get up from a chair and to sit down (Ellis-Christensen). The last survivors from this period in time, all that remains of a vanished idea, suffer from old age, arthritis, and the diseases that came with the practice of foot binding (Mao). Toward the end of the Qing Dynasty, when western countries had more influence on China, foot binding slowly gained more and more people who wanted to end the practice. Wives of Christian ministers, educated Chinese who had studied abroad in Europe and North America, and many others began to oppose foot binding (Schiavenza). Finally, in 1911, foot binding was officially banned (Bound). By the time Mao Zedong took control of China in 1949, the practice was gone, with the exception of a few remote areas in the mountains of China (Schiavenza). During the end of foot binding, a young woman named Gladys Aylward had a chance to preach the gospel to the Chinese people. She grew up in London, England, but was called to go to China and be a missionary to the villagers there. Aylward learned the language and culture of the Chinese, and later became a citizen. One of the officials appointed her to be a foot inspector after the law was passed to ban foot binding. Traveling from village to village, while the unwrapped peoples’ bandages, she preached the gospel to them, and told Bible stories. Many of these people believed and were saved (Gladys). Foot binding was not a form of torture, but was performed in respect to the Chinese culture and traditions. By making their feet exceedingly shorter, they believed that they were closer to perfection. Foot binding caused many women to suffer in their older ages, though. It is amazing that through suffering and pain, God finds ways to make himself known. Thankfully, foot binding is no longer practiced, due to the successful resistance movements of western influence (Mao). Works Cited â€Å"Bound to Be Beautiful: Foot Binding in Ancient China. † McClung Museum of Natural History and Culture. University of Tennessee Knoxville, 4 June 2005. Web. 25 Nov. 2013. Ellis-Christensen, Tricia. â€Å"Why Did Chinese Women Bind Their Feet?. † wiseGEEK. Ed. O. Wallace. N. p. , 16 Nov. 2013. Web. 25 Nov. 2013. â€Å"Gladys Aylward’s Long Road to China. † Christianity. com. Salem Web Network, 2013. Web. 25 Nov. 2013. Mao, J. â€Å"Foot Binding: Beauty and Torture. † The Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology 1. 2 (2007). Web. 25 Nov. 2013. Schiavenza, Matt. â€Å"The Peculiar History of Foot Binding in China. † The Atlantic. N. p. , 16 Sept. 2013. Web. 25 Nov. 2013.

Petty Cash Fund

Petty cash fund is a relatively small amount of cash that businesses keep on hand for the purpose of small transactions such as providing change to customers, postage expenses, highway tolls etc. In such transactions, the use of checks is time consuming, costly or illogical. Usually a custodian is appointed to administer the petty cash and it is his/her duty to account for the expenses incurred out of petty cash fund. Whenever the custodian makes any payment from the fund to an employee or a customer etc. he or she must record the amount being disbursed, the name of the person to whom the payment is being made and the reason for the disbursement. Following are the typical transactions connected to petty cash fund. 1. Creation: Petty cash fund may be created by drawing a check on the company's checking account and handing it over to the custodian of the fund. The journal entry is to debit petty cash and credit cash at bank. 2. Disbursements: Individual disbursements from petty cash ar e not recorded via a journal entry. Instead journal entry is passed at the time of each replenishment and at the end of the period for the total amount disbursed. 3. Replenishment: When the balance in petty cash becomes low, a journal entry is passed debiting various expense accounts and crediting petty cash for the sum of disbursements made. Then petty cash is replenished usually via a check. 4. Raising Fund Level: When the volume of transactions to be handled by the petty cash grows, the fund level is raised. The journal entry is to debit the petty cash and credit cash at bank. Steps Familiarize yourself with the purpose of the petty cash fund. The fund should be used for very small expenses, like buying stamps or envelopes, paying a small delivery fee, or paying a cab fare. It should not be used for large purchases; these should be paid for by check in order to leave a record. Decide on the amount of the petty cash fund. The fund should generally not hold more than a few hundred dollars; 100 dollars is a common amount for many small businesses. Keeping too much cash in the fund makes it a target for theft and misuse. Assign responsibility for the petty cash fund to someone. This person is called the petty cash custodian. Write a check to the petty cash custodian to establish the fund. The custodian should cash the check and keep the cash in a locked cash box. Spend money from the petty cash fund. To do this, employees should request the necessary cash from the custodian. The custodian will then fill out a voucher for the amount disbursed and place it with the remaining cash. Place the receipt from the purchase into the cash box. The receipt should be attached to its corresponding voucher. No journal entries need to be made for cash spent out of the petty cash fund ? this is the entire point of maintaining the fund. Replenish the petty cash fund when it gets low. The custodian will take the vouchers to whomever writes the checks to fill the fund. The vouchers should be examined for legitimacy, and then a check should be written to the custodian for the total amount of the vouchers. When this check is cashed, the cash is placed in the locked cash box. Continue to spend money from the petty cash fund, replenishing the fund when necessary. Debit- withdrawal, deductionpetty-little/smalldisbursed-payout, spend,expend Petty cash fund is a relatively small amount of cash that businesses keep on hand for the purpose of small transactions such as providing change to customers, postage expenses, highway tolls etc. In such transactions, the use of checks is time consuming, costly or illogical. Usually a custodian is appointed to administer the petty cash and it is his/her duty to account for the expenses incurred out of petty cash fund. Whenever the custodian makes any payment from the fund to an employee or a customer etc. , he or she must record the amount being disbursed, the name of the person to whom the payment is being made and the reason for the disbursement. Another internal control is to keep as little cash on hand as possible. It is often necessary, however, to keep some cash on hand. Cash kept on hand at a business to pay for small items such as postage due, a birthday card, or fuel expenses is known as Petty Cash. Petty Cash is generally kept in a petty cash drawer and payments are made for miscellaneous items out of this cash. Petty Cash is paid out in exchange for a petty cash voucher signed by both the recipient of the cash and the petty cash controller. The voucher should indicate the amount of cash paid out and the purpose of the disbursement. The recipient of the cash should provide a receipt for the purchase made out of petty cash which will be attached to the petty cash voucher. Replenishing Petty Cash At some point the Petty Cash fund must be replenished. It is at this point that the petty cash fund will also be reconciled. The procedure to replenish and reconcile petty cash begins by counting the cash remaining in the Petty Cash drawer. Next, all vouchers are totaled. The combined total of remaining cash and Petty Cash Vouchers should equal the established value of the Petty Cash fund. Finally, the Petty Cash vouchers should be organized into expense categories.

Free Essays on Relation Between The Federal Government And States

Relation between the Federal Government and States Constitution doesn’t trend to the modern economy then. I. Traditional (1788-1937) Congress - promote Supreme Court - protect Constitution President Hoover laiszze-faire John M. Keynes – Keynes economic theory â€Å"sometimes that not enough† government needs to take a proactive stand. Created a false demand that production will pick- up. Franklin Roosevelt – will get the economy back on track. 1st 100 days he push through 37 bills that he introduced to Congress, limited to an active – federal government. Senate and House passed all of the bills in 1937. Mood of the day – Supreme Court protect the Constitution Important: Supreme Court case (NLRB vs. Jones Laughlin Steel Co.) NLRB introduced a new relationship between the federal government and states. II. Cooperative In 1937 to help the States do want they could not do on their own. Federal government helps the states Roles of Supreme Court passive stands and let Congress go ahead. 1950’s people love the new federal government. Grants 28% of Texas budget comes from the federal government. Caucus causes the federal government. 1929 NAACP 1964 Civil Right Movement – World War II, Pearl Harbor Civil Right Movement - demand equality brought this change and the Supreme Court decision Brown vs. Board of Education – 14 amendment; School Segregation III. Coercive Federalism - 1953 Roles of Congress force states do what they would not do on their own. Roles of Supreme Court active / policy maker Supreme Court does not have anything to do with the 4th federal court. III. Reagan – 1981 Federal government is the trouble administrative program and push to state affective and effective â€Å"More cost effectively (cheaper) you do need that much money.† Downsize the role of government. Legacy of Reagan’s federalism what Reagan said we can do. How to best addre... Free Essays on Relation Between The Federal Government And States Free Essays on Relation Between The Federal Government And States Relation between the Federal Government and States Constitution doesn’t trend to the modern economy then. I. Traditional (1788-1937) Congress - promote Supreme Court - protect Constitution President Hoover laiszze-faire John M. Keynes – Keynes economic theory â€Å"sometimes that not enough† government needs to take a proactive stand. Created a false demand that production will pick- up. Franklin Roosevelt – will get the economy back on track. 1st 100 days he push through 37 bills that he introduced to Congress, limited to an active – federal government. Senate and House passed all of the bills in 1937. Mood of the day – Supreme Court protect the Constitution Important: Supreme Court case (NLRB vs. Jones Laughlin Steel Co.) NLRB introduced a new relationship between the federal government and states. II. Cooperative In 1937 to help the States do want they could not do on their own. Federal government helps the states Roles of Supreme Court passive stands and let Congress go ahead. 1950’s people love the new federal government. Grants 28% of Texas budget comes from the federal government. Caucus causes the federal government. 1929 NAACP 1964 Civil Right Movement – World War II, Pearl Harbor Civil Right Movement - demand equality brought this change and the Supreme Court decision Brown vs. Board of Education – 14 amendment; School Segregation III. Coercive Federalism - 1953 Roles of Congress force states do what they would not do on their own. Roles of Supreme Court active / policy maker Supreme Court does not have anything to do with the 4th federal court. III. Reagan – 1981 Federal government is the trouble administrative program and push to state affective and effective â€Å"More cost effectively (cheaper) you do need that much money.† Downsize the role of government. Legacy of Reagan’s federalism what Reagan said we can do. How to best addre...

Analysing The Challenges Facing Multilateral Organisations Today Politics Essay

Analysing The Challenges Facing Multilateral Organisations Today Politics Essay War is often the result of non negotiable problems/disputes. Since the end of the Second World War, liberal international theory advanced the establishment of international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and its sub bodies, in the belief that such international forums were where state members have a chance to discuss and air their common issues and grievances and could prevent war and, widen the corporations between nation states. However, since its creation, the legitimacy as well as the effectiveness of these multilateral institutions has always been questioned. The end of the Cold War marked a new era of world politics where the United States (US) became the predominant power in the international system. In addition, the Iraq war of 2003, led by the US, but was not authorised by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) and the issue raised a question about the hegemonic position of the US over the United Nations. This is just one of the many challenges multilater al organizations like the UN are facing today. The terrorist attack on 9th November on the US and similar attacks elsewhere in the world, as well as the increasing threat of weapon of mass destruction (being used by either a rogue state such as Iran or a terrorist group) in the 21st Century is another major challenge for the United Nations and its administrative departments. Moreover, with the increasing involvement of non state actors and non governmental organizations nowadays, the value of formal institutions like the UN is clearly affected in adverse ways. To clarify if multilateralism is in crisis or not, it is essential to firstly look at the difficulties posed by these new dimensions to multilateralism, then evaluate its reaction and effectiveness at tackling them. In this essay, the focus will be on UN as this is often seen as the vanguard of multilateralism. Firstly, the essay will examine what multilateralism can be defined as and will name the current challenges which Mul tilateralism faces, it will then go on to give analysis of the sources of those troubles. Finally, it concludes that such multilateral institutions like the United Nations are under real challenge to the effectiveness of their multilateralism; however, it is not yet in a crisis situation. The leaders of these organizations can no long presume their exchanges to be â€Å"business as usual† but need to take into account these growing troubles and think more about â€Å"reform† if multilateralism is to continue to function in a stable way. Before discussing whether multilateralism is effective one needs to consider what exactly multilateralism is. For Paul Nielsson, UN Commissioner, multilateralism is about ‘all parties’ carrying out ‘concerted efforts’ to strengthen the international regulatory framework’ (Jorgensen, 2007, p.2) and involves states ‘pooling’ both resources and sovereignty. The problem for many participants in multilateral processes is that the processes themselves are ‘often slow and difficult, and rarely do their results satisfy every participant’ (ibid). Thus, multilateralism is by definition a process where participants cannot expect a zero-sum outcome, where they can clearly identify their gains or losses and say it was a success or failure. Multilateralism is a compromise between states where its greatest success is that everyone is a winner and everyone is a loser, because nobody gets everything they want.

Inflation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Inflation - Essay Example The concept if inflation is indeed an important component considering how it influences many aspects of life. The paper seeks to delve into the causes of inflation in order to illuminate the factors which lead to the persistent increase in the prices. In the same way, it will provide an analysis into some of the effects of inflation while focusing on the different types of inflation arising from different economic situations. Introduction Inflation is described to be a rate in which the overall price of goods and services is increasing while the purchasing power decreases in an economy (Nicholson 57). Inflation usually causes money to lose its value. This comes about in that as inflation increases, currency only buys a small percentage of goods compared to what it used to when there was no inflation. This happens due to the increase in the money supply which is measured by the producer price index and the consumer price index over time. When inflation rises in an economy in higher ra tes, it leads to adverse effects in the economy. However, mild inflation in the economy can lead to positive effects such as creation of employment. To keep the rates of inflation low, monetary authorities usually central banks are given the responsibility of controlling prices. This paper will discuss various causes of inflation, types and the effects that it has in the economy. Causes of inflation One of the causes of inflation is cost-pushing. This is a case where companies incur a lot of costs in running their operations. Hall states that these higher costs are usually brought about by workers or trade unions pushing for their wage increase (163). When they receive the increase, the impact is felt by the consumer in that it transfers the cost to the consumer by increasing the costs of goods and services. This tendency is characterized by an increase in wages irrespective of the productivity. Productivity normally remains the same which leads to the increase in the prices of good s and services in order to counter the effect. When a lot of firms increase wages in the same manner and pass the effect to the consumer in terms of high prices, this the leads to inflation. Another cause of inflation is demand-pull. This is a case where the overall demand exceeds supply and is normally brought about when an economy experiences full employment. The demand can be in terms of goods and services or it can as well be the demand for labor. When the demand exceeds supply in the market, the suppliers have a tendency of increasing the prices of commodities. This is because of the surety that their goods will sell at whichever cost due to scarcity. If the supply of the goods remains low over a period of time, this leads to inflation because the prices will keep on getting higher and higher. This can also portray itself where employers demand more workers than what they can get. In turn, they increase their salary in order to attract more labor which leads to inflation in the long run. Exchange rate is another cause of inflation. This comes about when a nation has increased exposure to the foreign market. It is one of the critical factors that determine the rate of inflation. If the rate of exchange suffers, the local currency loses value to the foreign currency. This leads to the foreign goods becoming expensive to the local consumers which simultaneously lead to the local goods becoming cheap to the consumers in the overseas markets. In simple terms, the import price gets higher than the export price which leads to inflation. National debt is another cause of inflation. If a country has a higher debt, then this can accelerate the levels of inflation to higher rates. This leads to inflation because, if the debt increases, the government of the country is left with two options; to either print more money to pay off the debts or to increase the taxes which will lead to higher revenue hence provide means of settling the debt. Increase in tax is passed dow n to businesses that in turn increase

Laura Mericer Cosmetics Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Laura Mericer Cosmetics - Research Proposal Example It was 1996 when Mericer developed an own line which was designed to suit women of all the ages and all skin types. The specificity of her products is that their color themes are based on classic palette and usually don’t follow the seasonal trends – according to Laura’s vision classics is always in fashion. Currently Laura’s products are available in more than six hundred stores of twenty four countries all over the world, and the line has developed and grown to include skincare, bath, body, and fragrance lines. The founder of the line spends much time traveling, making public appearances at such stores as Neiman Marcus and Henri Bendel among others. She spends most of the free time in New York City or Paris. Currently among her clients are Cameron Diaz, Oprah Winfrey, Julia Roberts, and Mariah Carey to name a few. All of Laura’s artists were gaining experience through backstage access, editorial work or television before joining her team. She hires only experienced and creative individuals in order to provide clients with the best qualified service and the brand with those to continue the tradition of excellence. The preference is always given to diversified people experienced in cosmetics industry and with a successful track record. The images presented by the artist are those carrying confidence in oneself combined with lightness and some shades of glamour.

Understanding of culture and cultural differences as fundamental for Essay

Understanding of culture and cultural differences as fundamental for international marketing - Essay Example The researcher states that culture and cultural differences has not only impacted on the effectiveness of firms with respect to international competitiveness, but has also progressively generated negative effects regarding efficient usage of international marketing resources. Success of international firms is basically dependent on their international marketing strategies that incorporate cross-cultural intelligence aspects. Moreover, international marketing professionals continuously seek to understand global cultures and cultural differences that exist in the international specific markets ventured. Understanding cultural variations that exists among customers and target markets is important for developing an international marketing strategy that is universal and covers all customer needs. Application and outcome of professional marketing largely depends on the extent to which cultural differences are evident among customers. Firm’s competitiveness in the international marke t recognizes cross-cultural factors as determining factors with which comprehensive information is gathered from the various markets to enable formulation of best marketing strategies. Generally, cross-cultural analysis in the international market is similar to domestic market analysis, although international analysis places much emphasis on cultural aspects due to cross border cultural variations. However, domestic markets have also continued to diversify their cultures although as much as the international markets. ... However, domestic markets have also continued to diversify their cultures although as much as the international markets. Political, cultural, and social barriers and variation in the international markets have remained significant challenges to multinational companies that fail to recognize variations, and thus need for different business strategies. Nevertheless, international marketing strategies are more complex and sophisticated with respect to cross border variations as compared to domestic marketing strategies (Rugimbana & Nwankwo, 2003, p.331). International marketing recognizes a variety of cultural aspects that define one country’s culture from the other. Culture is defined and differentiated by technologies with regards to timing, moving, storing, analyzing, and producing information, as well as motives, accuracy, types, timeliness of data collection, language barriers, ethical standards, and attitudes of individuals collecting information. Different clients from dif ferent cultures seek to satisfy similar needs in different ways, which constitute cultures and common practice. Marketing professionals need to devise marketing strategies and products that are not biased to a particular culture, and are able to cover all cultural needs in question. Through research and information analysis, marketing professionals are able to understand the different needs of their customers with regards to their cultural variations. Cross-cultural analysis is carried out by relevant marketing professionals on the target markets of the firms they work for. International marketers seek to analyze particular cultures and the differences pertaining to their marketing strategies using relevant models of study and analysis. Here, cross-cultural research models used by

Anatomy And Physiology Of Blood And Heart

Anatomy And Physiology Of Blood And Heart The mechanism of the pumping action of the heart can be categorized in three phases- the generation of an action potential, conduction of the action potential and cardiac muscle contraction (action potential-contraction coupling). The action potential is generated the specialized autorythmic myocardial cells located at the Sino atria (SA) node. The potential spreads to the atria and enters the ventricles through the atria ventricular (AV) node from where it is conducted throughout the ventricles by the bundle of His and the purkinje fiber. The action potential triggers muscle contraction as it sweeps around the heart1. As the cardiac muscles contract and relax the heart beats repeatedly, in the process receiving and pumping blood, first to the lungs then to the rest of the body. As it leaves the heart, the blood carries with it oxygen and nutrients to the body and brings back metabolic wastes from the body cells1,2. However, much as it supplies blood to the rest of the body, the heart itself needs blood to support its metabolic activity. The heart is thus supplied by the coronary arteries which branch off from the aorta. Reduction in the volume of this coronary flow can greatly impair the pumping action of the heart and if not treated, can cause heart failure. A number of treatment options ranging from surgical to drugs are available2b. THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM The cardiovascular system is an organ system responsible for distribution of nutrients and oxygen to the bodys cells and removal of metabolic byproducts from the cells. It consists of the following: Blood which carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells and metabolic byproducts away from the cells The blood vessels which are the pathways through which blood flows The heart which receives and pumps blood. Embedded in the heart are valves that control blood flow and ensure that blood flows in a specified direction3,8. THE HEART In brief, the heart is a muscular organ enclosed in a double walled sack called the pericardium. It is about the size of a fist and weighs between 250 grams and 350 grams. It is located within the medial cavity of the thorax between the second and fifth intercostal space, just on the superior surface of the diaphragm, anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the sternum7. The heart is divided in four chambers, the right and left atria, the right and left ventricle. The circulation process is such that the right atrium receives blood from the rest of the body through the venacavea and feeds it to the right ventricle which pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery to be oxygenated. Blood from the lungs comes back to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein and finally to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body though the aorta and arteries7,1. The Mechanism of Heart function The most important function of the heart is to pump blood. The mechanism by which the heart pumps blood can be understood by examining the events that lead to cardiac muscle contraction. The contraction process starts with the generation of an action potential from the sinoatrial (SA) node giving rise to a depolarization wave. The wave spreads through the atria, entering the ventricles through the atrioventricular (AV) node and is conducted throughout the ventricles by the bundle of His and the purkinje fibers1. Generation of action potential. The heart is composed of two kinds of cardiac muscle cells- the contractile and autorythmic cells. The contractile cells are responsible for the mechanical work of pumping and therefore form the bulk of the cardiac muscles. However, these cells need to be excited before they can contract. Highly specialized autorythmic cells are responsible for generation and conduction of the excitation signal-the action potential1,3. These autorythmic cells are found in specific regions of the heart that include: The SA node. This is a small region located at the upper wall of the right atrium. The AV node. This is a bundle of the autorythmic cells found at the lower wall of the right atrium, near the septum that separates the atria from the ventricles. The bundle of His. This is a bundle of specialized conductive cells that originate from the AV node and runs down the septum between the ventricles. It separates into the right and left bundles serving the respective ventricles. The purkinje fiber. These can be regarded as terminations of the bundle of His. They spread over the base of the ventricles.The locations of the autorythmic cells are the origin and pathways of the action potential3. The cardiac action potential The SA node is the pace maker of the heart. It sets the frequency at which the heart beats. Looking at the cardiac cell, the action potential starts by the reorganization of the intracellular and extracellular concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride and calcium ions due to changes in the cell membrane permeability. A graph showing a typical myocardial cell action potential is shown in figure 1 below. Figure 1: Cardiac cell action potential. Source4: As in the graph, the different phases represent different stages of depolarization of the cardiac cell. Phase 4: In this phase, the cell is at rest. In the resting state, the cell membrane is more permeable to potassium and therefore the resting potential is more or less equal to the potassium equilibrium potential (-90mV). Phase 0: As the potential slowly rises, the voltage-gated sodium channels open leading to a rapid influx of potassium into the cell causing rapid depolarization. At the same time, the membrane permeability to potassium slowly reduces as the potassium channels close. This process takes the membrane potential to around +20Mv before the sodium channels suddenly close. Phase 1: On inactivation of the sodium channels, potassium continues to leak out of the cell and chloride ions go into the cell causing a small downward deflection of the action potential. Phase 2: At this stage, there is increased permeability of the membrane to calcium ions. The inward calcium movement is balanced by an outward movement of potassium ions accounting for the relatively flat phase 2. Phase 3: An increase in the permeability of potassium outweighs the inward calcium current and eventually tips the potential of the cell. This is the repolarization phase and the cell goes back to its resting potential, phase 43,4. Excitation-contraction coupling As described in muscle contraction, the action potential-contraction coupling is due to the release of calcium from the cells sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium combines with troponin which regulates the tropomyosin, removing it from the binding site. This allows myosin to bind to actin thus making the muscle to contract3. The cardiac cycle The depolarization and repolarization of the cardiac cell described above triggers the contraction and relaxation to the atria and ventricles of the cell. The cardiac cycle is divided in two main phases, diastole which is the period of relaxation and systole which is the period of contraction. Systole. During this phase, the depolarization wave starts from the SA node, spreading first through the atria and causing the atria to contact first. This forces blood from the atria to the ventricles. At this time, the atrioventricular valves are open while the pulmonary and aortic valves are closed. The depolarization wave then enters the ventricles through the AV node, spreading over all the ventricles via the specialized conductive bundle of His and the purkinje network. This causes the ventricles to contract forcing the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary vein and the rest of the body through the aorta. Here the atrioventricular valves close while the pulmonary and aortic valves open5,3. Diastole. After contraction of the atria, the cells are repolarized. This allows the atria to relax thus allowing blood to flow into them through the vena cavea. After the ventricular contraction, the ventricles also relax awaiting to be filled with blood from the atria5. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system is part of the cardiovascular system and is divided into the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. The pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart9. The systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and brings back deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart9. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava and flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. It is pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary arteries which go to the lungs. Oxygenated blood returns via the pulmonary veins and enters the left ventricle through the mitral valve. It is the pumped through the aortic valve, to the aorta then through the arteries to the rest of the body. It is evident that oxygen is very important in metabolic activity of the body cells3,9. Transport of oxygen by the cardiovascular system The red blood cells. One of the functions of the cardiovascular system is to distribute oxygen around the body. Oxygen is carried in blood by the red blood cells. Understanding the structure of the red blood cells will help us to understand how it is able to carry oxygen. The molecule of a red blood cell is composed of four polypeptide chains with each polypeptide chain having an iron-containing heme group. Each of the four iron atoms can combine reversibly with oxygen according to the equation: O2+Hbà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬ HbO2. It is therefore possible that each molecule of hemoglobin can carry up to four molecules of oxygen1b,2b. Oxygen uptake Blood is pumped from the right ventricle to the lungs to be oxygenated. In the alveoli, the partial pressure of oxygen is higher than that in the blood and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli is lower than that in the blood. The pressure differences make it possible for oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli to the blood, thus binding to the iron in the hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide on the other hand diffuses from the blood to the lungs. Carrying oxygen, blood is returned to the left atria then to the left ventricle which pumps it to the rest of the body2c. Oxygen release: In the tissues and organs, the cells are undergoing metabolism, continually consuming oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. This means that the intracellular partial pressure of oxygen is lower than that in the blood and the intracellular partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher than that in the blood. Again the pressure differences make it possible for oxygen to diffuse from the blood to the cells and carbon dioxide from the cells to the blood, binding again with the iron in the hemoglobin. Therefore, as blood flows around the body, it continually distributes oxygen2c,6. BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEART Coronary flow In order to perform its functions, the heart an abundant supply of oxygen and nutrients and therefore needs a dedicated supply of blood. Coronary circulation is that part of the systemic circulation that provides blood supply to the heart. Just as the aorta leaves the left ventricle, it gives of the right and left coronary arteries9. The left coronary artery divides into smaller braches supplying blood to the apex and the posterior side of the heart, the ventricles and part of the anterior interventricular septum, the left atrium and posterior wall of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery supplies the lateral aspect of the right atrium and ventricle, the posterior wall of both ventricles and the SA node9,10. Effect of reduced coronary flow on cardiac function The energy demand of the cardiac muscle is so crucial that an interruption of blood supply to any part of the myocardium can cause necrosis within minutes9. A decrease in coronary flow to levels below normal is called myocardial ischemia. The ischemia can be caused by vascular spasms of the coronary arteries, atherosclerosis or increased activity of the heart beyond levels that the coronary arteries can supply10. Temporary or reversible obstruction of coronary blood flow can cause chest pain known as angina pectoris9. Chronic myocardial ischemia can lead to myocardial infarction where myocardial cells die and are replaced by scar tissue. Reduced coronary flow therefore can affect cardiac function in several ways. If the heart is not able to meet its metabolic demand, it can be understood that it will not be able to pump enough blood to the body. Reduced blood flow to the rest of the body can result in serious physiological and pathological conditions which are beyond the scope of this essay. With the death of some cardiac cells as in the case of chronic ischemia, several other life threatening conditions can arise which affect cardiac function. One of such dangerous conditions is ventricular fibrillation which is an abnormal pulse generation triggered by the damaged myocardial cells. The heart will not be able to pump blood but will just quiver around without any net output. Death can occur within minutes2b,6. Treatment of reduced coronary flow Other immediate effects like ventricular fibrillation caused by reduced coronary flow can be treated by defibrillation. However, the main cause of reduced coronary flow is coronary artery occlusion or restriction and the following treatment options are available: Coronary bypass: This is a surgical technique where the occluded coronary artery is cut and replaced by a new blood vessel, usually a vein taken from somewhere in the patients body2b. Coronary balloon angiography (cardiac catheterization): This is another surgical procedure where a catheter containing a balloon at its tip is passed into the occluded artery. The balloon is enlarged thus stretching the artery and opening it in the process2b. The use vasodilator drugs such as nitroglycerine: These drugs dilate the coronary artery thereby lowering the total peripheral resistance. This reduces the work the heart must do in ejecting blood. This is usually given to people who have already suffered myocardial infarction to reduce the risk of another occurance2b,10. A person at risk of myocardial infarction can be put a low cholesterol, low fat diet to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and takes aspirin to reduce the risk of blood clot formation. Conclusion The cardiovascular system is one of the most important systems of the body. All the other systems and organs of the body depend on it for supply of oxygen and nutrients and removal of metabolic wastes. The heart acts as a pump to make sure blood is circulated to all parts of the body through pulmonary and systemic circulations9. However, the heart itself needs supply of blood in order to perform its main function of pumping blood and the heart is supplied by the coronary circulation. Reduction in coronary flow means the heart will not be able to meet it metabolic needs and therefore cannot pump enough blood. This can adversely affect normal activity of the body and cause death10. References Sherwood L. Fundamentals of physiology a human perspective. St. Paul Minn: West publishing company; 1991.190-199 1b. Sherwood L. Fundamentals of physiology a human perspective. St. Paul Minn: West publishing company; 1991.263-266 Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D. Human physiology, the mechanisms of body function, seventh edition. Boston: McGrow-Hill; 1998. 387-389. 2b. Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D. Human physiology, the mechanisms of body function, seventh edition. Boston: McGrow-Hill; 1998. 374-377. 2c. Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D. Human physiology, the mechanisms of body function, seventh edition. Boston: McGrow-Hill; 1998. 479-483. Koeppen M B, Stanton A B. Berne and Levy physiology, sixth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier; 2008. 289-303 Serguei Semenov (2009): Lecture notes. Physiological measurements, ecg/pacemakers/defibrillators. Cohen J B, Wood L D. Structure and function of the human body, seventh edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2000. 195-204. Vandegriff K.D, Benazzi L, Ripamonti M, Perrella M, Tellier Le Y.C, Zegna A, Winslow R M. Determination of the rate and equilibrium constants for oxygen and carbon monoxide binding to R-state human Hemoglobin,199: The journal of Biological Chemistry ; 266 (26): 17049-17059 Elaine N M, Katja H. Human anatomy and physiology, seventh edition. Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings; 2007.674-681 Sherwood L. Human physiology: from cells to systems, sixth edition. Belmont, CA: homson/Brooks/Cole; 2007.300-304 Saladin K S. Anatomy and physiology: The unity of form and function, fifth edition. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Higher Education; 2009.683-755 Stanfield C L, Germann W J, Niles J N, Cannon J G. Principles of human physiology, third edition. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings; 2009. 361-366 Skeletal Muscle Question: Describe the structure of skeletal muscle and how it contracts (90) and discuss a disease that may arise from this system (10) The structure of skeletal muscle and the mechanism of muscle contraction including muscle disease (1553 Words) 1.0 ABSTRACT Skeletal Muscle is a form of fibrous tissue with the fibers arranged parallel to each other. A muscle fiber (cell) is surrounded by the endomysium. A group of these cells is wrapped by fascicles. Bundles of fascicles are covered by the perimysium and bundles of the perimysium are wrapped by the epimysium to form a muscle. The muscle fibers have contractile properties which enable them to move bony levers in order to produce skeletal movement1. The functional unit of the muscle fiber is the sacomere which consists of most importantly, actin and myosin. The actin and myosin are arranged such that during contraction, they can slide over each other thus shortening the muscle2. Muscles suffer from many diseases, one of which is polymyositis. This is an inflammatory myopathy that affects mainly the muscles of the thorax and those around the torso. It affects all age groups but has been noticed mainly in late childhood and early adulthood. The sypmtomps are nonspecific but results in general muscle weakness and the cause, though believed to be an invasion by the white blood cells, is not very clear10. 2.0 The Structure of Skeletal Muscle. In daily life, structures and arrangements of designs are dictated, to a large extent by the purpose and function for which the design is meant for. Knowing that skeletal muscle is made up mainly of fibrous tissues, the arrangement of these tissues and how they are bound together to maintain a particular shape in order to accomplish different purposes (mainly to generate force and produce movement) may to a large extent, define the structure of the muscle4. At a macro level, the skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of individual muscle fibers, the supporting structure called the basal lamina, and the connective tissue sheaths as shown in figure 1. These connective tissues bind the cells together giving them strength and partly providing mechanical protection2. We can examine these connective tissues and their functions as follows: 2.1 The basal lamina. This is an extracellular matrix that acts as a scaffold on which a cell sits. It has been realized that apart from providing structural support, the basal lamina can orient and constrain cell during the process of regeneartion3. 2.2 The endomysium. This is a fine sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle cell. The endomysium consist of loosely interlacing fibers composed mainly of collagen4. 2.3 The perimysium and fascilces. The individual muscle fibers wrapped by the endomysium, are grouped together in what is called fascicles. A layer of fibrous tissue called the perimysium wraps each fascicle4. 2.4 The epimysium. This is the outside layer that finally wraps the whole muscle. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue4. Figure 1 Source: http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Muscular/muscle_structure.jpg 3.0 The muscle cell Having described how individual muscle cells are organized into a muscle, it is imperative that we look at the structural composition of the cell itself. Just like many other cells in the body are specialized according to their functions, skeletal muscle cells are specialized to produce force and movement5. The skeletal muscle fiber is thus composed of mainly three structural elements:-the myofibrils, the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria, each contributing a unique aspect of muscle function. The entire function of the muscle can be attributed to the shifts in proportions of these three structures6. 3.1 The Myofibrills. These are cylindrical specialized sub-units within the muscle fiber. They consist of two types of contractile protein filaments-the thin filaments referred to as actin and the thick filaments referred to as myosin. The two most important parameters of the myofibrils are their diameter which determines its strength and the fiber length which determines it contraction velocity and distance over which the fiber can contract. The myofibril consist of two filaments-actin and myosin6,2. 3.1.1 Actin (thin filament). Actin filaments are responsible for regulation of contraction. The actin filament is formed by a helical arranged of actin monomers which is an ambiguous protein2 (figure 2). Because of the helical nature, a long grove is formed along the filament and the protein troponin is located at intervals along the length of the actin filament. It is troponin which is responsible for turning on contraction2,7. Figure 2.The actin molecule. Source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~sjjgsca/Muscleslidingfilament1.gif 3.1.2 The Myosin (thick filament). Myosin filament is about 150nm long. It has a tail and two heads. The tail is formed by two helical shaped fibers that coil around each other. A collection of several of these helical tails together form a myosin filament (figure 3)4b. Figure 3. The myosin molecule. Source: http://webanatomy.net/anatomy/myosin.jpg. 3.2 The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Groups of about 200 thick and thin filaments constitute a myofibril. Each myofibril is thus enclosed in a membrane called the sarcoplasmic reticulum8. The SR membrane stores and releases calcium during muscle contraction and relaxation. The SR can therefore be thought of as the functional unit of the myofibril9. 3.3 The mitochondria. Found within the cell cytoplasm, the mitochondria are responsible for generation of most of the cells energy by the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). There are several mitochondria distributed along the length of a myofibril4. 4.0 The mechanism of muscle contraction Muscle contraction can largely be attributed to the structure of actin and myosin, their arrangement within the SR and the interaction between them in order to produce force (Figure 4). This type of arrangement allows the thin actin filaments to slide in and out by the action pull of the myosin heads8b. Figure 4. Actin and myosin arrangement: Source: http://www.exrx.net/Images/ActinMyosin.gif Muscles are composed of a number of actin and myosin filaments arranged in series in a basic unit called the sacomere. The sacomere consists of a thick filament in the meddle and two thin filaments, one overlapping on each side. The heads of the thick filament attach to the thin filament at the overlap and these heads allow movement in only one direction. When activated, each thick filament head rachets repeatedly along the actin, pulling the two actins closer together. Since the actin are attached to the Z line (The distance between two Z lines form the sacomere), ends of the sacomere (Z lines) are pulled in and the sacomere shortens. The sacomeres are arranged in series so that when the muscle fiber contracts, all the sacomeres contract simultaneously transmitting the force to the end of the muscle. The whole process of contraction described above occurs when the muscle is electrically stimulated2b. 5.0 Muscle stimulation. Skeletal muscle cells are stimulated by the motor neurons of the somatic nervous system. The reception of the motor stimulus (action potential) opens the calcium channels allowing calcium which is stored in the SR to be released. The release of calcium causes the release of acetylcholine-Ach (neurotransmitter). The calcium binds to the troponin on the actin filament. Troponin then regulates the tropomyosin which obstructs binding sites for myosin. This allows the tropomyosin to move, unblocking the bonding site. Myosin then binds to the unblocked site on the actin and applies a pull. This will pull the Z bands towards each other thus shortening the sacomere, causing muscle contraction2b. However, as calcium is released, the ATP-dependent calcium pump is activated and it continuously pumps calcium back to the SR to be stored again. This leads to a drop in calcium level within the cytoplasm. When the calcium level is too low, the calcium binding action to troponin is terminated, releasing tropomyosin which again blocks the binding site. This stops the interaction between actin and myosin thus relaxing the muscle2b. 6.0 Muscle Diseases There are a number of muscular diseases and disorders ranging from acquired, familial to congenital. Limiting ourselves to one of the acquired disorders of the muscles, lets look at polymyositis. 6.1 Polymyositis (PM). PM is a type of muscle inflammatory myopathy. Just like the name suggests, this disease causes inflammation of the muscle fiber. Although the causes of the disease are not well understood, it is believed that PM begins when white blood cells, spontaneously invade muscles. This can result in severe muscle weakness. Polymyositis is a persistent disease characterized by periods of increased and reduced or no symptoms. PM affects mainly the muscles of the thorax and is more common in women than men. It is said to affect all age groups although is it commonly noted in early childhood or 20s10. Key pathologic and diagnostic features of the disease. Endomysial inflammation. This is the inflammation of the outer connective tissue that surrounds the muscle fiber. This is done by the white blood cells that leave the blood and enter the tissue, somehow confirming the earlier assertion that the PM begins when white blood cells invade muscles. Invasion of myofibers by autoaggressive lymphocytes. This is when the T lymphocytes begin to attack the intact myofibers. Unlike in muscle dystrophy where inflammation is associated with degenerating myofibers, the invasion of T lymphocytes causes inflammation of health myofibers in PM.This causes inflammation of healthy myofibers. Other diagnostic features that may not be exactly specific to PM include myofiber necrosis, myophagocytosis, myofiber atrophy and fibrosis, a feature of chronic PM10,11. 7.0 Conclusion Human movement is only possible because of the action of muscle contraction. Voluntary contraction of muscle is made possible by the somatic nervous system which sends out an action potential activating the contraction process. The process is accomplished by the sliding of myosin and actin over each other. Many diseases and disorders affect muscles, prominent among them is muscular polymyosis which causes inflammation of the muscles mainly around the torso. Its believed to be caused by the unwanted action of the white blood cells and the symptoms include muscle weakness.